Cliffs &amp; Rocky beaches

Combined approach (grey + green)

Hold the line

Grey infrastructure

A breakwater is a coastal structure (usually a rock and rubble mound structure) projecting into the sea that shelters vessels from waves and currents, prevents siltation of a navigation channel, protects a shore area or prevents thermal mixing (e.g. cooling water intakes). A breakwater typically comprises various stone layers and is typically armoured with large armour stone or concrete armour units (an exception are e.g. vertical (caisson) breakwaters). A breakwater can be built at the shoreline or offshore (detached or reef breakwater). This measure is not directly addressed to protect the coast in flood events, but can indirectly stabilize the coast by preventing erosion.

Based on the information available on the ClimateAdapt Platform

To build breakwaters, rock size, face slopes, crest elevation and crest width and toe protections and aprons should be designed according to the natural characteristics of the sites as these factors have an important impact on the shoreline. Sand may build up behind breakwaters to form salients. Sand can accumulate enough to connect with the breakwater and form a tombolo (a stretch of sand developed by wave refraction, diffraction and longshore drift forming a ‘neck’ connecting the structure to the shore). Considering the significant impact these structures have on the coastal environment, they should only be considered as part of a global adaptive management policy, taking into account the characteristics of the specific site and the potential effects on the whole coast. The construction of breakwaters could also be linked to a beach nourishment programme, and breakwaters can be used in a protected beach nourishment approach.

Stakeholder participation

If an EIA is undertaken, the EU Directive provides for the right to access information and to participate in the environmental decision-making procedures to the public concerned by the project. If a project creates a significant impact on a Natura 2000 site, the ‘appropriate assessment’ of the infrastructure project could include a public participation process, but this is not mandatory. Similarly, the Floods Directive, the Water Framework Directive and the Maritime Spatial Planning Directive establish public participation processes that may include these projects.

A range of stakeholders could be affected by the construction of breakwaters: for local communities and landowners, hard defences could negatively impact their property. Hard defences can visually disrupt the landscape, affecting tourism interests, recreational users and other sectors. Waterborne activities can also be adversely affected if the installation of hard structures goes wrong.

Success and Limiting Factors

Artificial structures such as breakwaters tend to modify longshore drift, and have adverse effects on adjacent beaches by causing downdrift erosion. In general, to avoid these effects on the coastline, artificial nourishments and/or dune development are often preferable over hard structures unless there are other needs, such as the safe berthing of ships. However, the extent of the blocking of longshore drift, disturbance of adjacent beaches and degradation of landscape values depends very much on the design, orientation of the structure and the main wave/sediment transport direction at the specific site.

Breakwaters provide safe mooring and berthing procedures for vessels in ports. They enhance workability and provide thus higher efficiency in loading and unloading vessels.

Costs and Benefits

Construction costs depend significantly on structure dimensions. Costs can be highly influenced by availability of suitable rocks, transport costs to the construction sites and associated costs of beach nourishment.

In the Netherlands, breakwaters are estimated to cost about EUR 10,000 to 50,000 per running meter (Deltares, 2014).

According to Scottish Natural Heritage, in 2000 construction costs of breakwaters are high – GBP 40,000 to 100000 (50,000-125,000€) – but they require low maintenance; for these structures in particular, beach nourishment costs should be added.

Legal Aspects

The construction of coastal works to mitigate erosion and hard sea defences ‘capable of altering the coast’ fall into Annex II of the EIA Directive (codified as Directive 2011/92/EU): Member States decide whether projects in Annex II should undergo an EIA procedure, either on a case-by-case basis or in terms of thresholds and criteria. However, this requirement does not affect the maintenance and reconstruction of these works.

Any infrastructure project likely to have a significant impact on a Natura 2000 site must be subjected to an ‘appropriate assessment of its implications for the site’ to determine whether the project will adversely affect the integrity of the site.

The Water Framework Directive calls for the Good Environmental Status of Europe’s water bodies, including coastal waters. Coastal defences could alter the hydromorphological characteristics of coastal waters, for example in terms of water flow, sediment composition and movement, and thus to a deterioration of ecological status. Any projects that do so would need to meet criteria set out in Art. 4 of the Directive. The EU Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) provides a legal framework for flood actions and defence. The construction and restoration of dikes could be part of measures under flood risk management plans. The 2014 Maritime Spatial Planning Directive requires the consideration of the interactions between land and sea, along with maritime activities and adaptation to climate change. Breakwaters could affect these land/sea interactions.

Life Time

Breakwaters have a typical design lifetime of 30-50 years. This is the case for most rock structures.

Public Education Schemes

nst — Thu, 23 Feb 2017 10:25:51 +0000

Public Education Schemes nst Thu, 02/23/2017 - 11:25

Public Awareness and Preparedness

Not all stakeholders are aware or informed about their vulnerability to a changing climate, or flood risk protection. Nor are they aware of the pro-active measures they can take to adapt or deal with climate change. Awareness raising and education programs are therefore important to manage the impacts of climate change, enhance peoples’ capacity to deal with the impacts, and reduce overall vulnerability.

Sharing knowledge in this way can help build safety and resilience, reduce future hazard impacts. Communities and individuals usually want to become partners in this, and the public can be empowered to deal with the impacts and reduce future problems related to flood risk and disaster risk response.

Based on the information available on ClimateAdapt Platform and the Ifrc-Guide on Public awareness and public education for disaster risk reduction.

Several types of approaches can be used such as campaigns, participatory learning, informal education, formal school based interventions.

Given that individuals and communities are in different positions, in terms of both capacity to act as well as vulnerability or being affected by, awareness raising schemes need to be tailored to their audience.

Large climate change awareness raising campaigns are often a mixture of mitigation, energy efficiency, and sustainability measures rather than adaptation measures.

Benefits

The benefits also mean that through knowledge transfer, the resilience of the community or individuals can be increased which is essentially transforming knowledge and information into potential for action, protection and mitigation of harmful effects. It stimulates self-mobilisation and makes excellent use of local knowledge and resources for improved overall capacity.

Awareness raising is continually relevant, and should be adapted as information and situation changes. Therefore, awareness raising is not only a first step but a step that can continually offer support to effectively managing flood risks.

It is also generally a measure that can accompany many others, explaining to a community the options available to for instance, prevent erosion at a local beach, thereby in theory, informing decision making and improving democratic participation in climate change adaptation and decision making.

Disadvantages

In itself, flood hazard mapping does not cause a reduction in flood risk nor does it directly lead to people adopting risk-reduction measures. Researchers have found that people take action only when

They know what specific actions can be taken to reduce their risks;
They are convinced these actions will be effective;
They people in their own ability to carry out the tasks.

Costs

Awareness raising and school education schemes are generally inexpensive in comparison to some other mitigation efforts, however, they also vary in scale, thoroughness, and continuation. For instance, in order to be effective, generally education and awareness raising should include consistent and standard messaging, legitimacy and credibility, and scalability. It may require adaptation to specific local circumstances, such as language translation, or continual evaluation as a situation changes or becomes different. It may also only be effective if it reaches the target stakeholders it was designed for, who may for instance, have low capacity to deal with flood disasters despite having increased their awareness about them. Thus finding, low cost solutions or area specific options is crucial.

Thus, awareness raising and education programs are most effective when developed through a participatory approach where needs, expectations, and capacity are measured and information is developed together. Moreover, the more tailored, maintained and thoughtful the approach the more likely it will be to be put into practice.

Measure category

EXAMPLE: Relocation in Criel sur Mer, Normandy (FR)

nst — Mon, 16 Jan 2017 12:49:39 +0000

EXAMPLE: Relocation in Criel sur Mer, Normandy (FR) nst Mon, 01/16/2017 - 13:49

Exposed element relocation and removal

Managed retreat

Grey infrastructure

Criel sur Mer is a small town in Normandy in the region of Northern France, known for its stunning coastline of steep chalk cliffs. Erosion of the cliffs in Criel sur Mer is occurring rapidly as a result of climate change but also due to man-made construction works further up the coast. In Criel sur Mer a short piece of land on the coast that is eroding rapidly and several homes built near the sea are threatened by the predicted collapse of the cliff. In particular, a street of homes were faced with immediate danger from erosion. Between 1995 and 2003, the local administration organized the abandonment and demolishment of 14 homes due to imminent risk from natural disaster under the Barnier Law. The adoptive policy was to do nothing against cliff erosion and to demolish and relocate those in immediate threat and compensate them fairly for their lost property.

General description

Coastal erosion is a common challenge along many stretches of the coast in Normandy. The cliffs are extremely steep and the rock material is chalk which is soft and easily erodible. The verticality of the cliffs mean that erosion is especially intense at the base of the cliff leading to significant fractures and collapse of cliff and loss of pebble beaches that would otherwise help mitigate erosion from the sea. Moreover, in Criel sur Mer considerable engineering works carried out along the coast have exacerbated erosion. Specifically, the construction of the ports Le Havre, Fécamp, Saint-Valery-en-Caux, Dieppe, and Le Tréport as well as structures for water and nuclear stations in Paluel and Penly; and the creation of coastal defence structures (sea fronts, groynes etc) at the mouths of all the valleys. These manmade constructions have created disturbances to the transport of sediment (mainly course pebbles) to the shore and resulted in a faster rate of erosion due to lack of protection. Pebbles have also been extracted for gravel purposes. Loss of pebbles leads to a retraction of the beach which protect the mouths of the rivers and the cliffs.

One of the immediate challenges for the community of Criel sur Mer was the actual loss of cliffs where houses existed.Responding to this emergency, the local administration considered both hard and soft measures with for instance the consideration of the implementation of defence works at the base of the cliff. The high cost of defence measures and the low cost of the real estate threatened by erosion led the local administration to evacuate the families faced and to implement a coastal setback plan whereby any new developments must take place 100 m from the cliff top.

The innovative aspect of this relocation measure was the fact that the compensation rate to those individuals that lost their property was calculated against the real market value. It is common that properties known to be at imminent risk lose real market value quickly, however, in the case of Criel sur Mer the French Government ensured that those families losing property were provided for financially based on the ‘riskless’ market value of the homes.

Key lessons learnt

The lesson of the Criel sur Mer illustrates is the inevitability of managed retreat in the face of climate change and the fact that multiple variables affect the situation and decision taken. For example, the cause of erosion was not only climate change but also a result of manmade constructions and attempts to mitigate against erosion. Moreover, the possibility of implementing a hard defense was considered but was economically disadvantageous. Thus, the Criel sur Mer provides an example of an extreme case of communities being threatened by climate change and provides an example of how governments and administration can more fairly compensate them economically.

Relevant case studies and examples

EXAMPLE: Beach recharge at Pevensey Bay (UK)

nst — Fri, 13 Jan 2017 08:17:06 +0000

EXAMPLE: Beach recharge at Pevensey Bay (UK) nst Fri, 01/13/2017 - 09:17

Combined approach (grey + green)

Hold the line

The beach of Pevensey Bay (UK) is a shingle barrier beach under threat from flooding and coastal erosion. Today, the beach is managed in an adaptive manner developed by Pevensey Coastal Defence, where management activities respond to changes in risk and beach recharge and beach recycling is undertaken.

Based on: Sutherland, James, and Ian Thomas. "The Management of Pevensey Shingle Barrier." Ocean & Coastal Management 54 (2011): 919-29.

General description

Pevensey Bay, located between Eastbourne and Cooden in East Sussex on the southern coast of England, surrounds a nine kilometre beach under threat from flooding and coastal erosion. The beach is a shingle barrier beach, a mix of sand, gravel and cobbles protecting important animal habitats, properties, roadways and other infrastructure. Additionally, approximately 50 km² of valued low-lying conservation and agricultural land could be flooded should the beach become breached at high spring tide. The challenge facing local authorities and residents is that each wave of sea water on the barrier beach takes more sediment away than it brings, resulting in a net loss of coastal land as time progresses. This issue is compounded by sea level rise, and both contribute to increased risk of flooding and loss of land through erosion.

In general, the strategy of the Pevensey Bay beach management plan can be classified as “hold the line”, which involves strengthening and upgrading the existing coastal defences. In Pevensey, it was decided to thicken the barrier beach through beach nourishment, recharge, and recycling to bring more protection from breaching.

In response to the flood and erosion risk, the UK Environmental Agency has tasked the Pevensey Coastal Defence consortium to manage the barrier beach of Pevensey Bay. The consortium implements activities in response to assessed risk that are determined through monitoring. This strategy is representative of an adaptive management approach whereby risk and uncertainty are managed through an continuative process of informed decision making that responds to regular monitoring.

Beach management

Pevensey Coastal Defence was able to meet their tactical objectives by following a three-part process of measurement, benchmarking and implementation. The three stages helped maintain the natural and social health of the Pevensey Bay. Firstly, both the Environmental Agency and Pevensey Coastal Defence performed cross-shore profiles and beach surveys several times a year to get a better understanding of the level of erosion. The measured values are compared, or benchmarked, to set threshold values of various coastal state indicators that would indicate existing and predicated erosion and flooding. Finally, the differences between measurements and thresholds let decision makers compare intervention strategies as well as the locations to implement these strategies. Considered and implemented strategies include variations of beach nourishment, recharge, recycling and re-profiling through the use of dump trucks or boats. This last stage has a temporal factor with different strategies being more efficient and environmentally sound at different times of the year.

Key lessons learnt

A study of the Pevensey Bay barrier beach concludes that early decisions made during the adaptive management process should carefully consider several coastal state indicators and thresholds that will determine when to intervene and by how much. Additionally, Pevensey Bay, like other similar shrinking beach areas, is best protected by beach recharge sourced from external sediment reservoirs in tandem with beach recycling, all the while considering the health and impact on natural systems.

Relevant case studies and examples

Beach Nourishment

Measure category

Prevention

Protecting and restoring reefs (coral and oyster)

nst — Tue, 06 Dec 2016 09:18:12 +0000

Protecting and restoring reefs (coral and oyster) nst Tue, 12/06/2016 - 10:18

Based on kindly provided information by UNEP's "Green Infrastructure Guide for Water Management: Ecosystem-based Management Approaches to Water-related Infrastructure Projects " (UNEP, 2014)

Hold the line

Ecosystem based approach

Coral and oyster reefs are considered to be types of coastal wetlands. As a natural coastal defense they are a buffer for coastlines against waves. Reefs are threatened by rapid environmental change, making it very important to protect and restore reefs.

Coral reefs are shallow-water marine ecosystems characterized by massive calcium carbonate formations secreted by colonies of coral polyps and algae living in their tissues (Sheppard et al. 2005). Reefs build up as each coral species secretes uniquely shaped carbonate skeletons over older skeletal remains. The foundations of older reef structures are riddled with tunnels and channels created by physical and chemical erosion and the effects of reef inhabitants. Coral reefs are home to high fish and invertebrate biodiversity, all uniquely adapted to reef life, yet fundamentally dependent on coral survival. They tolerate little environmental variation and are particularly vulnerable to small changes in water quality, but they can recover once adverse events end, as long as local sources of colonizing organisms and suitable substrates are available (UNEP-WCMC 2006).

In their natural setting, oyster reefs are often found seaward of salt marshes (Scyphers et al. 2011) and are a source of valuable services both to ecosystems and humans. It is estimated that up to 80 per cent of the world’s oyster reefs have been lost, a rate unprecedented for any other marine habitat (TNC 2012). This loss also represents an enormous reduction in the ecosystem services provided by these reefs including food, habitat for bird and marine species and a buffer for coastlines against waves.

The sustainability of both coral and oyster reefs is also threatened by rapid environmental change, which overwhelms reef-species adaptation and resilience following destructive events. The pressures on reefs include human activities (such as sedimentation, water pollution, resources extraction and commercial fishing) (Waddell 2005; Burke et al. 2011), as well as the effects of climate change. Among the latter is the increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and excessive heat, which cause intolerable acidity and water temperatures (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007; De’ath et al. 2009).

Where possible, conservation measures can be put in place and actions taken to deal with the pressures and causes of degradation of coral and oyster reefs. In addition to eliminating or mitigating the source of reef impact, methods of oyster reef restoration and coral transplantation are often used to increase the rate of coral and oyster colonization at damaged sites (Epstein et al. 2001).

For coral reefs, transplantation ideally starts with collecting fragments of living coral rock as soon as possible and storing them in a suitable location until they can be moved to the restoration site (Japp 2000; Epstein et al. 2001). Fragments can then be attached to suitable substrate. In difficult locations, artificial structures can be installed to provide a stable foundation for coral transplants (Japp 2000). Transplantation success depends on the species, transplant shape and type, status of substrate attachment and environmental conditions (Japp 2000). Where that is not possible, coral may be transplanted from nearby reef locations or from coral nurseries prepared in advance for restoration needs.

Similarly, oyster reefs can be constructed artificially to replicate their natural functions. Case studies show that creating large-scale man-made coral reefs is possible, and they are able to replicate many of the functions provided by naturally occurring coral reefs (TNC 2012).

Benefits

For a long time, grey solutions have been dominant in coping with coastal hazards. Approaches include artificially hardening the shoreline or creating artificial barriers by dumping gabions made of cement and rock into the water (World Risk Report 2012). This is not only damaging to marine ecosystems, but can also shift the impacts of storms to communities down shore, increasing the need for additional defence structures.

There has been growing awareness and evidence of coral and oyster reefs playing a major role in coastal stabilization and coastal defence (World Risk Report 2012). Coral reefs provide natural breakwaters that can mitigate flooding and the erosive effects of storms along low-lying shores (Japp 2000; UNEP-WCMC 2006). They have shown to reduce the wave energy and height that impacts coastlines (Sheppard et al. 2005) attenuating and reducing more than 85 per cent of incoming wave energy (World Risk Report 2012). By forming a natural barrier, the reefs are the first line of coastal defence from the damaging impacts of waves, erosion and flooding.

Like coral reefs, oyster reefs protect from coastal erosion and wave erosion (TNC 2012). Evidence oyster reefs also prevent coastal marsh retreat (Scyphers et al. 2011). Due to their complex structure, these natural barriers reduce water velocities, increase sedimentation rates and provide improved conditions for settlement and retention of propagules, thereby improving the chances of species survival (Scyphers et al. 2011).

Co-benefits

Coral reefs and oyster reefs have enormous significance in the lives of millions people. Tropic coastal populations in particular depend heavily on the resources provided by these ecosystems (World Risk Report 2012), where many reef species support fisheries and other livelihood sources (Burke et al. 2011). The reefs also play an important role in sustaining traditional lifestyles and carry cultural significance to local communities. In addition, they are home to rare species with relevance to e.g. production of medicinal products. Coral reefs are also popular tourist attractions (Burke et al. 2011) creating basis for significant income from the tourism sector, such as recreational scuba diving and snorkelling.

Oyster reefs are shown to provide food and shelter for crabs and fish species, which in turn increases the catch for fisheries. They also have shown to remove nitrogen from coastal waters, preventing algal blooms and dead zones (TNC 2012).

Costs

Restoring coral reefs is usually a very expensive and technologically complex exercise. The critical features making coral reefs such effective protection barriers, are the size, height, hardness and structural complexity of the reefs (i.e. friction) (World Risk Report 2012). Once lost, such features are very difficult and expensive to replicate. The best approach, therefore, is to protect reefs from external stressors before they are degraded, focusing on the sources of human impact. The creation of no-fishing zones at reefs, for example, appears to restore reef resilience and may make them somewhat less susceptible to increases in global temperature and carbon dioxide (Mumby and Harborne 2010; Selig and Bruno 2010).

A study on oyster reef restoration projects in the Gulf of Mexico, for instance, has shown that investments in restoration activities could yield a several-fold return on investment through gains in fisheries and avoided damage for properties and public infrastructure. The case study assessed a USD 150 million investment over ten years in restoring 160 km of oyster reefs in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. The assessment showed that the initial investment would be returned twofold in the period via new jobs and goods and services delivered to the local communities (TNC 2012).

The accelerated rate of global climate change requires particular consideration in relation to the long- term fate of restored reefs. The risks of eventual coral reef loss at the warmest edges of coral reef ranges, for example, can occur regardless of the success of the restoration efforts and need to be considered in connection with investment decisions. A troublesome concern is also elevated ocean acidity from increasing carbon dioxide (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007). However, many studies have shown that in most cases investments in coral and oyster reef protection yield manifold benefits, once the socio- economic co-benefits are considered.

Literature sources

Burke, L., Raytar, K.,Spalding, M. and Perry, A. (2011). Reefs at risk revisited. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.

De’ath, G., Lough, J.M and Fabricius, K.E. (2009). Declining coral calcification on the Great Barrier Reef, Science, vol. 323, pp. 116-119.

Epstein, N., Bak, R.P.M. and Rinkevich, B. (2001). Strategies for gardening denuded coral reef areas: The application of different types of coral material for reef restoration. Restoration Ecology, vol. 9, pp. 432-442.

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Mumby, P. J., Hooten, A. J. et al. (2007). Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science, vol. 318, pp. 1737-1742.

Japp, W.C. (2000). Coral reef restoration, Ecological Engineering, vol. 15, pp. 345-364.

Mumby, P. J. and Harborne, A.R. (2010). Marine reserves enhance the recovery of corals on Caribbean reefs. PLoSONE, vol. 5, pp. e8657.

Scyphers, S.B., Powers, S.P., Heck Jr., K.L. and Byron, D. (2011). Oyster Reefs as Natural Breakwaters Mitigate Shoreline Loss and Facilitate Fisheries. PLoS ONE, vol. 6, p. 8.

Selig, E.R, and Bruno, J.F. (2010). A global analysis of the effectiveness of marine protected areas in preventing coral loss. PLoS ONE, vol. 5, p. e9278

Sheppard, C., Dixon, D.J., Gourlay, M., Sheppard, A. and Payet, A. (2005). Coral mortality increases wave energy reaching shores protected by reef flats: Examples from the Seychelles. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, vol. 64, p. 223–234.

TNC (2012). The Nature Conservancy, The Economics of Oyster Reef Restoration in the Gulf of Mexico: A Case Study in Mobile Bay, Alabama.

UNEP-WCMC (United Nations Environmental Programme/World Conservation Monitoring Center. (2006). In the front line: shoreline protection and other ecosystem services from mangroves and coral reefs. Cambridge UK: WCMC/UNEP

Waddell, J.E. (2005). The State of the Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2005. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 11. Silver Springs, Maryland: NOAA/NCCOS Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s Biogeography Team.

World Risk Report (2012). Available from http://www.worldriskreport.com/.

Measure category

Mitigation

Spatial Planning and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

nst — Thu, 10 Nov 2016 12:42:35 +0000

Spatial Planning and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) nst Thu, 11/10/2016 - 13:42

Emergency Event and Contingency Planning

Public Awareness and Preparedness

EXAMPLE: A participatory adaptation planning approach, Cascais (PT)

Coastal and marine environments are usually characterized by beautiful landscapes and rich ecosystems of great importance, offering elements such as rich biodiversity. They also attract human activities such as tourism and industrial uses. However, the co-existence of human activities and natural resources often creates conflicts of use in the coastal zone.

Management policies are an important means of implementing planning in order to minimise, prevent or resolve use conflicts. The development of a coastal and marine spatial planning system presents an opportunity for the implementation of an overall strategy of conservation, sustainability and management to maximise future economic profit.

Based on "Papatheochari, Dora (2008): Spatial Planning and Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Available from http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Spatial_Planning_and_Integrated_Coastal_Zone_Management [accessed on 10-11-2016]"

Spatial Planning

Previously, the role of spatial planning focussed intensively on economic and social development. Gradually, environmental dimensions were taken into account, especially through the appearance of sustainable development in environmentally important areas. Spatial planning in Europe promotes environmental sustainability, examining the concept of development which meets environmental, social and economic needs of present and future generations as well as policy and planning instruments to promote such development. It also encourages spatial integration of development perspectives demonstrating how social cohesion, regional innovation and sustainable development can interplay in real planning situations, using policies and planning tools, such as Environmental Impact Assessment and European Spatial Development Perspective.

Through the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS), spatial planning has been used to define and map coastal and marine areas. It is essential to examine not only environmental impacts of individual activities but to research cumulative effects of multiple activities occurring in an area. Mapping coastal and marine areas in detail allows the opportunity to identify those areas at particular risk from possible pollution or excessive disturbance and to examine in detail how many activities are occurring.

Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is a dynamic, continuous and iterative process designed to promote sustainable management of coastal zones. ICZM projects cover various geographical areas, from local regions to spatially extensive coastal areas. The “Integrated” in ICZM refers both to the integration of objectives and to the integration of the multiple instruments needed to meet these objectives. ICZM includes the integration of all relevant policy areas, sectors, and levels of administration as well as the terrestrial and marine components of the geographical area under consideration. The word 'Integrated' also refers to four types of integration: spatial, temporal, vertical and horizontal.

Comparing Spatial Planning and Integrated Coastal Zone Management

A common goal of spatial planning and ICZM is to define, develop and protect coastal zones; ICZM is most common at the local scale while spatial planning is often applied at larger scales. Both share policies with the same goal, the resolution of land use conflicts for the development and conservation of coastal and marine environment. Spatial planning at the national level is essential in order to examine the impact of human activities in urban and regional coastal zones. Coastal Zone Management is becoming increasingly necessar because of the increasing importance of coastal and marine exploitation/development and protection.

An enabling environment at the European level could provide the framework in which countries can develop more appropriate integrated coastal zone management policies, including investment strategies, integrated development plans (spatial and functional) and resource management strategies.

The most important issue for both spatial planning and ICZM are the effective and successful implementation of planning systems and policies as well as a better understanding and definition of coastal and marine areas. A common perspective of European coasts must be adopted in order to improve management and planning of activities in coastal and marine areas.

Relevant case studies and examples

EXAMPLE: Developing an Attica Wetland Action Plan (GR)

Measure category

Prevention

Flood and hazard forecasting

giacomo.cazzola — Thu, 15 Sep 2016 12:13:22 +0000

Flood and hazard forecasting giacomo.cazzola Thu, 09/15/2016 - 14:13

Flood Forecasting and Warning

Based on: Jha, Abhas K., Robin Bloch, and Jessica Lamond. Cities and Flooding: A Guide to Integrated Urban Flood Risk Management for the 21st Century. World Bank Publications, 2012.

Flood forecasting is an essential tool for providing people still exposed to risk with advance notice of flooding, in an effort to save life and property.

Different flood forecasting service models exist based on the needs of end users: a system may be developed for the public or strictly dedicated to the authorities. There is no single consistent approach worldwide but the basic principles of a good warning system are shared by all. These comprise:

Better detection in times of need well before the actual event occurs
Interpretation of the detected phenomena and forecasting this to the areas likely to be affected
Dissemination of the warning message to the relevant authorities and public via the media and other communication systems.

The fourth and final aspect is to encourage the appropriate response by the recipients by preparing for the upcoming event. This can be improved through flood response planning by people at risk and their support groups.

Uncertainty in flood forecasting

Models, by definition, are approximations of reality. As described earlier, all models suffer from a certain level of approximation or uncertainty in spite of powerful computing systems, data storage and high level technologies. Decision makers have to consider the effects of uncertainties in their decision-making process. Errors in forecasting of an event, for example stage or time of arrival, may lead to under-preparation (at the cost of otherwise avoidable damage) or over-preparation (resulting in unnecessary anxiety). The balance between failure to warn adequately in advance and the corrosive effects of too many false alarms must be carefully managed.

The reliability of flood forecasting models relies on the quantification of uncertainty. All natural hazards are uncertain. The various sources that give rise to uncertainty in forecasting and early warning can be classified (Maskey. 2004) as:

Model Uncertainty
Parameter Uncertainty
Input Uncertainty
Natural and Operational Uncertainty.

It is necessary to gain a better understanding of the options available to deal with the uncertainties within the system arising from these different sources.

In order to produce a forecast, the initial conditions are typically determined by means of observations from rain gauges; these may, however, be unevenly spaced throughout the catchment, leading to uncertainty as to the total volume of rainfall. Where hydrologically important areas (such as steep slopes) are unrepresented, the model may utilize an interpolation method (introducing another element of uncertainty) in order to estimate run-off volume and peak flows. More sophisticated modeling can address these issues, but this in turn may demand high processing speeds and lengthy run-times.

To offset some of this uncertainty, operational flood forecasting systems are moving towards Hydrological Ensemble Prediction Systems (HEPS), which are now the ‘state of the art’ in forecasting science (Schaake et al. 2006; Thielen et al. 2008). This method formed part of initiatives such as HEPEX (Hydrological Ensemble Prediction EXperiment) which investigated how best to produce, communicate and use hydrologic ensemble forecasts for short, medium and long-term predictions. Despite its demonstrated advantages the use of this system is still limited: it has been installed on an experimental basis in France, Germany, Czech Republic and Hungary.

To deal with the uncertainty in spatio-temporal distribution and prediction of rainfall for extreme events, especially through radar derived data, a promising approach has been to combine stochastic simulation and detailed knowledge of radar error structure (Germann et al. 2006a, 2006b, 2009; Rossa et al. 2010). Radar ensembles have the potential benefits of increasing the time for warning especially for flash floods (Zappa et al. 2008). Advanced techniques, such as disdrometer networks (equipment capable of measuring the drop size, distribution and velocity of different kinds of precipitation) and LIDARs are being used to capture small scale rainfall phenomenon, whilst satellite remote sensing is more appropriate for regional and global level applications. A combination of all these methods and blending information is considered to be the most promising way forward.

There are a several useful examples of such systems:

DELFT-FEWS: one of the state of the art hydrological forecasting and warning systems developed by Deltares. This system is an integration of a number of sophisticated modules specialized in their individual capacities and the system is highly configurable and versatile. The system can be used as a standalone environment, or it can be used as a compliant client server application. Through its advanced modular system FEWS has managed to reduce the challenges like handling and integration of large datasets to a considerable extent.
Automated Local Evaluation in Real Time (ALERT) is the method used within the AUG member states to transmit data and information using remote sensors for warning against flash floods.
Central America Flash Flood Guidance is an example of regional flash flood warning. The national Hydrologic Warning Council (NHWC) has member countries across North America and many parts around the world; it is also a major organization in data dissemination for early warning for flood events.
The Mekong River Commission flood forecasting system, discussed above, has been operating since 1970. It is an integrated system which provides timely forecasting to its member countries. It consists of three main systems of data collection and transmission, forecast operation and information dissemination at both national and regional level.
The Southern African regional model for flood forecasting Stream Flow Model (SFM) has been applied after the Mozambique flood in 2000. The USGS along with Earth Resource Observation System (EROS) supports monitoring and modeling capacities of Southern African Countries.
Regional Water Authority of Mozambique (ARA-Sul) is responsible for issuing flood warning and real time forecasting. The system is operational in Southern Africa with a mean area of 3,500 square kilometers. A simplified flood warning system, the Mozambique Flood Warning Project, is specially tailored to the needs of the local population. It also involves the local people and trains them to install, monitor and maintain the structures.
Hydro Met Emergency Flood Recovery Project is used in Poland.
Bhutan’s Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOFs) Iridium Satellite Communications is used as the telemetry back-bone for Bhutan’s GLOF Early Warning Project.
In the Toronto region of Canada, the Toronto and Region Conservation Authority (TRCA) flood forecasting and warning system is used; this is a scalable flood warning system including web-based data and video for nine watersheds.
The Automatic Dam Data acquisition and alarm reporting system, is the Puerto Rican System to obtain, monitor and analyze, in real- time, critical safety parameters such as inflows, outflows, gate openings and lake elevations for 29 principal reservoirs
Central Water Commission (CWC) in India provides the Turnkey Flood forecasting system across 14 states having 168 remote sites in six river basins.

Literature sources

Maskey, S., Guinot, V. and Price, R.K. 2004. “Treatment of precipitation uncertainty in rainfall-runoff modeling: a fuzzy set approach.” Advances in Water Resources 27 (9): 889-98.

Schaake, J., Franz, K., Bradley, A., and Buizza, R. 2006. “The Hydrological Ensemble Prediction Experiment (HEPEX).” Hydrological and Earth System Sciences Discussions 3: 3321–32.

Thielen, J., Schaake, J., Hartman, R. and Buizza, R. 2008. “Aims, challenges and progress of the hydrological ensemble prediction experiment (HEPEX) following the third HEPEX workshop held in Stres 27-29 June 2007.” Atmospheric Science Letters 9: 29-35.

Germann, U., Berenguer, M., Sempere-Torres, D., and Salvadè, G. 2006a. “Ensemble radar precipitation estimation — a new topic on the radar horizon.” Proceedings of the 4th European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology (ERAD). Barcelona. September 18–22, 2006. 559–62.

Germann U., Galli, G., Boscacci, M, and Bolliger M. 2006b. “Radar precipitation measurement in a mountainous region.” Quarterly Journal Royal Meteorological Society 132: 1669–92.

Germann, U., Berenguer, M., Sempere-Torres, D., and Zappa, M. 2009. “REAL — Ensemble radar precipitation estimation for hydrology in a mountainous region.” Quarterly Journal Royal Meteorological Society 135: 445–56.

Rossa, A. M., Cenzon, G. and Monai, M. 2010. “Quantitative comparison of radar QPE to rain gauges for the 26 September 2007 Venice Mestre fl ood.” Natural Hazards and Earth System Science 10 (2): 371–7.

Zappa, M., Rotach, M.W., Arpagaus, M., Dorninger, M., Hegg, C., Montani, A., Ranzi, R., Ament, F., Germann, U., Grossi, G., Jaun, S., Rossa, A., Vogt, S., Walser, A., Wehrhan, J., and Wunram, C. 2008. “MAP D-PHASE: Real-time demonstration of hydrological ensemble prediction systems.” Atmospheric Science Letters 2: 80–7.

Measure category

Evacuation planning

giacomo.cazzola — Thu, 15 Sep 2016 11:39:02 +0000

Evacuation planning giacomo.cazzola Thu, 09/15/2016 - 13:39

Emergency Event and Contingency Planning

Based on: Jha, Abhas K., Robin Bloch, and Jessica Lamond. Cities and Flooding: A Guide to Integrated Urban Flood Risk Management for the 21st Century. World Bank Publications, 2012.

To minimize the loss of lives and reduce other flood impacts, an area should be evacuated when the depth of standing water due to flooding is already or is expected to become high. Such floods are defined as those which are expected to cause buildings, including residential houses, to be washed away or seriously damaged by the flooding.

Organizational aspects of evacuation planning

An interdisciplinary planning organization must be set up covering the key institutions that have remits relating to disaster and specifically flood management. This organization can be a Community Flood Management Committee (CFMC). In addition to the CFMC, evacuation centers should also be established in appropriate settlements.

The members of the CFMC should have knowledge of evacuation and rescue operation and emergency, including medical care (if this is not the case, then basic training should be provided to them). Evacuation plans should be prepared after discussion with the community. Participatory planning will increase people’s awareness and ability to cope and manage flood risk. The evacuation plan should be available to all members of the community, including the most vulnerable.

Dissemination of information on flood risk and flood preparedness requires the organization of regular community meetings. Such meetings can take place before the onset of the rainy season, or monsoon. It is vital that evacuation drills will be held regularly to test the effectiveness of the evacuation plans.

The evacuation plan should delineate an escape route and also identify small- scale works that may be needed to make the route safer. Such works can be executed in cooperation with the community as well as with external support. The evacuation plan should also determine modes of transport and access routes for evacuation and rescue operations and relief projects. In addition, the evacuation plan should identify open spaces and buildings to be used as evacuation centers. These can function as described by Arnold, Chen, Deichmann et al. (2006: 149).

Temporary shelters and refuges
Hospitals, possibly in existing buildings with stored supplies and basic medical equipment
Information centers, with uninterrupted linkages to the central communications system
Supply distribution points for basic survival supplies, such as water, food, and blankets
Sanitary facilities, including toilets, showers, and waste disposal units.

To develop evacuation plans and carry out the tasks outlined above, maps showing the most exposed areas to flood risk should be available. EWS should also be in place to give advance notice of an impending flood allowing evacuation plans to be put into action. Even when a flood is not as severe as predicted, these preparations help test evacuation plans and inform the communities as to the nature of flood risk.

Provision of flood shelters and refuges

As stated in UNDP (2009:36): “Shelter is likely to be one of the most important determinants of general living conditions and is often one of the largest items of non-recurring expenditure.”

Shelters and refuges must, as a minimum:

Provide protection from the climate conditions
Provide space to live and store personal belongings
Ensure dignity, privacy, safety and emotional security.

In most emergencies there is a common basic need for shelters or refuges. However, issues such as the type and the design of the shelter, the required materials, by whom it is constructed, and the duration it is expected to last, will vary significantly according to the situation. Vulnerability analysis can identify the basic needs and priorities of the affected population in relation to shelters. Safe areas for flood shelters or refuges may include:

Schools
Religious meeting places (such as temples, churches, mosques)
Community centers
Higher ground (such as roofs, upper floors, embankments)
Military installations
Barracks.

Location and size of shelters and refuges

The need for the location and size of shelters and refuges needs to be decided in consultation with the communities. Transportation between the shelters and social and work locations for the displaced population should be considered. Existing social practices, and the provision and maintenance of shared resources (such as water, sanitation facilities and cooking) should be taken into consideration in the design of shelters and also in the allocation of space within shelters and plots. The plot layout in the evacuation centers must preserve the privacy and dignity of individual households.

The use of materials and the type of shelter that are most commonly used among refugees or the local population is to be preferred for the construction of shelters. The design of the shelter must follow the simplest principles and structures. The provision of a solid and robust roof is the main requirement, and even when a complete shelter cannot be provided, adequate roofing should always be the priority.

Plastic tarpaulins can be easily found in most cases. Tents are not always the best type of shelter because it is not easy to live in them and also they cannot provide adequate protection against extreme climate conditions. Nevertheless, in certain cases, tents may be used as storage facilities, or to set up hospitals, schools and other facilities. The success of the evacuation centers highly depends on these facilities.

Communications between shelters and refuges

The success of an evacuation plan is highly dependent on the efficacy of the communication systems. Established communication systems must ensure that the relevant authorities are promptly informed, for example by radio or telephone. The sharing of information is essential to achieve a better understanding of the problems. Coordination among all those involved in an evacuation operation is necessary to assure that the evacuation plan is being implemented successfully.

Key lessons learnt

Evacuation plans minimize the risks and impacts of flooding for the population of cities and towns.

Relevant case studies and examples

EXAMPLE: London Mass Evacuation Framework (UK)

Literature sources

Arnold, M., Chen, R.S., Deichmann, U., Dilley, M., Lerner-Lam, A.L., Pullen, R.E. and Trohanis, Z. ed. 2006. Natural Disaster Hotspot Case Studies. Washington, DC: World Bank Hazard Management Unit.

UNDP (United Nations Development Program). 2009. Emergency Relief Items, Compendium of Generic Specifi cations. Geneva: UNDP.

Measure category

Early warning systems

giacomo.cazzola — Thu, 15 Sep 2016 11:06:41 +0000

Early warning systems giacomo.cazzola Thu, 09/15/2016 - 13:06

Flood Forecasting and Warning

Based on: Jha, Abhas K., Robin Bloch, and Jessica Lamond. Cities and Flooding: A Guide to Integrated Urban Flood Risk Management for the 21st Century. World Bank Publications, 2012.

The purpose of early warning systems (EWS) is simple. They exist to give advance notice of an impending flood, allowing emergency plans to be put into action. EWS, when used appropriately, can save lives and reduce other adverse impacts.

Warning systems can be used to alert relevant authorities or the public or both. The scale of a warning system can be national, based on a river basin, or local and run by volunteers. Most are stand-alone national operations, but warning systems have been developed covering several international rivers, such as the Rhine, Danube, Elbe and Mosel in Europe, the Mekong, Indus and Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basins in Asia and the Zambezi in Southern Africa (United Nations 2006). However, the utility of EWS is crucially dependent on the underlying forecasting system, the quality of emergency plans and the level of preparedness of the community at risk. The quality of forecasting is also dependent on the nature of the hazard. Warning systems related to river flooding have a longer lead time than those for cyclonic events; seismic induced tsunamis may have very short warning periods. Forecasting flash flooding is also very problematic; this has implications for developing nations which are more exposed to such risks, due to the prevalence of monsoon type flooding. Whilst there is general agreement about the desirability of EWS, the implementation of such a system is necessarily subject to local factors.

Essentials for an effective EWS

The four main essentials for any flood warning system are:

Detection of the conditions likely to lead to potential flooding, such as intense rainfall, prolonged rainfall, storms or snowmelt
Forecasting how those conditions will translate into flood hazards using modeling systems, pre-prepared scenarios or historical comparisons
Warning via messages developed to be both locality- and recipient-relevant and broadcasting these warnings as appropriate
Response to the actions of those who receive the warnings based on specific instructions or pre-prepared emergency plans

Failure in any one of the four key elements of an EWS will lead to a lack of effectiveness. Inaccurate forecasts may lead to populations ignoring warnings issued subsequently.

The lack of clear warning and instruction may have resulted, for example, in the deaths of people escaping the Big Thompson Canyon flood in the US in the 1970s. Without clear instructions many people were killed trying to drive out of the canyon rather than taking the safer option of abandoning cars and climbing to higher ground.

Finally, the case of Hurricane Katrina demonstrated the scenario where clear advanced warnings failed to protect the population because the evacuation planning was inadequate.

Organizational aspects of flood warning dissemination

There are multiple communication channels by which a flood warning may be broadcast and the choice of media will vary depending on the intended recipients. It is also essential to consider the use of media that will be robust to the impacts of a flood.

The most successful warning services use a combination of media, ideally with consistent messages and timescales, as well as the response the message hopes to initiate. For example, an individuals whose home is likely to be flooded will probably react best to a personal message either via phone, fax or in person; people who should avoid travelling to or through an affected area may prefer a news bulletin backed up by an internet or press map of the affected area.

Costs and resources

Setting up a warning system may be a low cost option for countries and is often seen as the first line of defense for that reason. The cost will be lowest in nations with existing and adequate forecasting and monitoring services. In this case the setting up of a warning center can be a very low cost process and this can be quickly established during consultation and stakeholder identification.

Setting up adequate forecasting and monitoring serviced can require much larger investments in expertise, software and hardware for modeling and monitoring equipment. The lead time to establish forecasts of the required reliability and timeliness may be a deterrent.

Key lessons learnt

Once established the service will require continuous investment in manpower, data and other resources in order to be functionally useful. Recruitment and retention of qualified personnel, continuity of funds and operations and maintenance of monitoring, modeling and dissemination equipment can be key challenges in the long term sustainability of systems. This can be particularly acute for low frequency events.

Relevant case studies and examples

EXAMPLE: Early warning system in Sogn og Fjordane (NOR)

Literature sources

United Nations. 2006. Global survey of early warning systems. UN.

Measure category

Emergency planning

giacomo.cazzola — Thu, 15 Sep 2016 10:47:05 +0000

Emergency planning giacomo.cazzola Thu, 09/15/2016 - 12:47

Emergency Event and Contingency Planning

Based on: Jha, Abhas K., Robin Bloch, and Jessica Lamond. Cities and Flooding: A Guide to Integrated Urban Flood Risk Management for the 21st Century. World Bank Publications, 2012.

It is vital to recognize that even after the implementation of non-structural flood mitigation measures residual flood risk will remain. It is of paramount importance to make plans to deal with flood events and their aftermath. This involves multiple activities which can be included as part of a flood emergency plan. In this section there is an overview of the elements central to emergency planning.

Identifying existing internal organizations

All countries possess existing institutions and organizations that, if coordinated, may be mobilized to meet individual emergencies. The purpose of the emergency plan is to identify these institutions prior to the emergency in order to:

Identify roles and responsibilities.
Identify command structures.
Facilitate inter-agency cooperation.

The preparation of the emergency plan will help to identify barriers to cooperation, including authority structure and finance, which need to be resolved before flooding occurs.

Identifying appropriate external agencies

Some flooding events may be addressed using existing national resources but many countries do not have sufficient physical and human resources to address regional and national emergencies. It would then be appropriate to invite the assistance of external agencies.

The presence of international agencies may, however, overwhelm the host government with the risk that the latter may lose control of the relief effort. This, in turn, can result in the deskilling of local people who may feel it necessary to defer to the external agencies. It should also be recognized that the objectives of external agencies may conflict with those of internal agencies: for example, to ‘showcase’ their charity in high profile emergencies. Managing these agencies is both difficult and time consuming and may require considerable diplomacy.

The emergency plan should therefore contain detailed policies, identifying the roles and responsibilities and restrictions on invited agencies.

Damage Avoidance

Actions taken before a flood arrives can significantly reduce the loss of life and the amount of damage suffered. Pre-warning and evacuation planning should therefore be part of an emergency plan. It follows that an early warning system (see Section 4.9) is a central requirement for damage avoidance. Local flood emergency planning could involve, for example, the installation of temporary flood barriers, or the removal of zoo animals (as in the Cologne case study elsewhere in this volume). Deployment of some building design features, as described in Chapter 3, may also be dependent on warnings being issued.

It is necessary to mobilize personnel and machinery, where available, to protect infrastructure (such as dikes, levees and retention basins); to remove individuals from facilities at risk (such as hospitals, schools, industrial sites, bridges, or individual houses); and to prevent landslides and riverbank erosion. Strengthening and rehabilitation of existing structures and flood-proofing measures can also protect critical infrastructure. Such measures may include sandbagging or establishing temporary earth, wooden or other flood barriers, including mobile flood barriers (WMO 2011).

Flood emergency preparedness activities

To coordinate emergency procedures, a flood management unit (FMU) needs to be set up. Representatives from the local community should be included as members. The FMU will be responsible for developing a business and government continuity plan (BGCP) and for coordinating emergency procedures in a secure flood free location, as identified in the evacuation plan. The FMU can also be organized to serve as the local representative, focal point or community partner for wider river-basin level planning. Government continuity planning requires the community to effectively participate throughout the planning process. Participatory planning for emergency situations can help build trust and confidence among stakeholders, enhance cooperation, facilitate information sharing and encourage regular communication (WMO 2011).

At a household level a number of strategies can be adopted which will reduce damage as a result of flooding. Including the following:

The identification of household escape routes
Installation of temporary flood proofing
The identification of elevated buildings (or even mature trees) that can be used as safe havens
The moving of property to higher levels
The storing of emergency provisions
The use of non-flood impacted communications such as radios, mobile phones or even prearranged signals in order to share information
The removal of vehicles from the area: their use in the post-flood situation is invaluable.

Emergency water supplies and sanitation

The flooding will have destroyed existing water supplies and sanitation infrastructure, where applicable; any overflow of sewage will also have polluted water supplies. The emergency plan should therefore identify alternative water supplies, preferably gravity-fed to avoid the need for pumping. The tankering of water is a very short-term solution which uses vehicles and fuel which could be more beneficially employed elsewhere.

Similarly, sanitation should be provided close to the displaced population, away from the source of water supply and on unsaturated permeable strata to allow sufficient drainage. These factors should be taken into account when locating refuges and other areas of residence.

Access

Flooding may affect both roads leading to the flooded area as well as those within it. This can include blockages of debris and silt, as well as flooding or washing away.

The emergency plan should therefore identify the following:

Access roads to and within the flood zone, avoiding low bridges over rivers, low- lying areas, roads susceptible to land slippage (in cases of flooding caused by heavy precipitation) and highlighting those not susceptible to crime and insecurity.
The design and location of permanent signage on principal road routes.

The use of symbols avoids the difficulties of literacy and language.

Suitability of road, railways and airfields, where available, for longer distance transport of supplies.
Suitability of ports near main shipping lanes, with sufficient depth and with suitable loading and unloading facilities for international vessels.

Clearance

Floods deposit large volumes of debris and mud, the clearance of which is essential for the relief effort. The emergency plan should identify how the debris and mud is to be cleared, by whom and where is to be deposited.

Emergency health facilities

Flooding may generate a range of injuries. The emergency plan should identify:

The suitability of public buildings to act as preliminary treatment centers (such as schools, government offices or similar).
Existing hospital facilities, away from the likely flood area, that may be developed with specialist services and equipment.
The method of evacuation for those with more serious injuries.
A system of vaccination.
The suitability of public areas (such as parks and schools), for the siting of mobile clinics units, temporary camps and distribution centers.
The provision of power, as electricity supplies (where these exist) are likely to have been severed.

Energy

It is likely that the floods will destroy access to energy resources, be they electricity or, in less developed areas, other forms of fuel including wood and animal dung. The emergency plan should identify:

The local fuel resources and their continued accessibility during and after a flood.
Alternative sources of energy (for example, generators) and the fuel to run them.
Key institutions such as hospitals which should be supplied with these alternative sources and the methodology for ensuring their continued availability between floods.

Security

Emergency situations, and the breakdown of the normal standards of society and their enforcement, often create opportunities for theft and corruption.

The emergency plan should therefore include:

The securing of the facilities identified in the emergency plan, between and during flood events.
The visible deployment of reliable security forces immediately post flood to deter looting.
External auditing of government functions for efficiency and probity.

Key lessons learnt

An appropriate and implementable emergency plan can:

Facilitate emergency response.
Minimize the impacts of flooding.
Allocate resources efficiently.
Reduce confusion.
Facilitate recovery.

Literature sources

WMO. 2011. Flood Emergency Planning: A tool for Integrated Flood Management. Associated Program on Flood Management.

Measure category